I have contacted both WooCommerce and Stripe, and even tried installing another payment gateway (via WC — Braintree). Also, I have disabled and re-enabled all plugins, disabled security, etc… still nothing. Thanks for helping!
It seems that there is no input field appeared for credit card detail in checkout page. So, can you please provide us the login credential or provide us the stripe plugin via email here. So that we can find out the issue and help solve your problem.
Also do not share any login credential here in this forum as this forum is publicly visible.